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Greenhouse gas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Page 1 of 15 n.._~
Greenhouse gases aze gases in an atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared
range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect.~l~
In our solaz system, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse
effects.
Greenhouse gases, mainly water vapor, are essential to helping determine the temperature of the Earth;
without them this planet would likely be so cold as to be uninhabitable. Although many factors such as
the sun and the water cycle aze responsible for the Earth's weather and energy balance, if all else was
held equal and stable the planet's average temperature should be considerably lower without greenhouse
gases.[2l[3l[41
Human activities have an impact upon the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which has other
effects upon the system, with their own possible repercussions. The most recent assessment report
compiled by the IPCC observed that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and
~~
aerosols, land cover and solaz radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system ,and concluded
that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the
increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century".~51
See also effects of global warming
Contents
^ 1 Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere
^ 2 Natural and anthropogenic
^ 3 Anthropogenic greenhouse gases
^ 4 Role of water vapor
^ 5 Greenhouse gas emissions
^ 5.1 Recent rates of change and emission
^ 5.1.1 Asia
^ 5.1.2 United Kingdom
^ 5.1.3 United States
^ 5.2 Relative CO2 emission from vazious fuels ',
^ 6 Removal from the atmosphere and global warming potential'
^ 6.1 Atmospheric lifetime
^ 6.2 Global warming potential
^ 6.3 Airborne fraction
^ 7 Related effects
^ 8 See also
^ 9 External links
^ 10 References
Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere
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Greenhouse gas - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In order, Earth's most abundant greenhouse gases aze:
^ water vapor
^ carbon dioxide
^ methane
^ nitrous oxide
^ ozone
^ CFCs
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When these gases are ranked by their contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most important are:
^ water vapor, which contributes 36-70%
^ cazbon dioxide, which contributes 9-26%
^ methane, which contributes 4-9%
^ ozone, which contributes 3-7%
The major non-gas contributor to the Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared
radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases.~61~~1
The contribution to the greenhouse effect by a gas is affected by both the chazacteristics of the gas and
its abundance. For example, on amolecule-for-molecule basis methane is a much stronger greenhouse
gas than carbon dioxide, but it is present in much smaller concentrations so that its total contribution is
smaller.
It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect, because
the influences of the various gases are not additive. The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for the gas
alone; the lower ends, for the gas counting overlaps. ~~1161 Other greenhouse gases include sulfur
hexafluoride, hydrofluorocazbons and perfluorocazbons. See IPCC list of greenhouse gases. Some
greenhouse gases aze not often listed. For example, nitrogen trifluoride has a high global warming
potential (GWP) but is only present in very small quantities.~gl
Although contributing to many other physical and chemical reactions, the major atmospheric
constituents, nitrogen (N2), oxygen (02), and argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases. This is because
homonucleaz diatomic molecules such as N2 and 02 and monatomic molecules such as Ar have no net
change in their dipole moment when they vibrate and hence aze almost totally unaffected by infrared
light. Although heteronucleaz diatomics such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen chloride (HCl)
absorb IR, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. As
a consequence they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and are not often included
when discussing greenhouse gases.
Late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that N2 and 02 did not absorb infrazed radiation
(called, at that time, "dazk radiation") and that water as a vapour and in cloud form, CO2 and many other
gases did absorb such radiation. It was recognized in the early 20th century that the greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere caused the Earth's overall temperature to be higher than it would be without them.
Natural and anthropogenic
Aside from purely human-produced synthetic halocazbons, most
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greenhouse gases have sources from both the ecosystem in general
(natural) and from human activities specifically (anthropogenic).
During the pre-industrial holocene, concentrations of existing gases
were roughly constant. In the more populated industrial era, human
activities have added greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, mainly
through the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.[9][l0]
Preindustrial
Current
Increase Radiative
Gas
Level
Level
since 1750
forcin
g
2
_____ __ -__.~,
_ ____~__.. _ _~.____
____~m
Cazbon
dioxide 280 ppm 387ppm 104 ppm 1.46
Methane 700 ppb 1,745 ppb 1,045 ppb 0.48
Nitrous
oxide 270 ppb 314 ppb 44 ppb 0.15
'
CFC-12 0 533 ppt 533 ppt 0.17
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400,000 years of ice core data
Ice cores provide evidence for variation in greenhouse gas concentrations over the past 800,000 yeazs.
Both CO2 and CH4 vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and concentrations of these gases
correlate strongly with temperature. Before the ice core record, direct data does not exist. However,
various proxies and modelling suggests large variations; 500 Myr ago CO2 levels were likely 10 times
higher than now.[11] Indeed higher CO2 concentrations are thought to have prevailed throughout most of
the Phanerozoic eon, with concentrations four to six times current concentrations during the Mesozoic
era, and ten to fifteen times current concentrations during the eazly Palaeozoic era until the middle of the
Devonian period, about 400 Mya.[12][13][14] The spread of land plants is thought to have reduced CO2
concentrations dunng the late Devonian, and plant activities as both sources and sinks of CO2 have
since been important in providing stabilising feedbacks.[15] Earlier still, a 200-million year period of
intermittent, widespread glaciation extending close to the equator (Snowball Earth) appeazs to have been
ended suddenly, about 550 Mya, by a colossal volcanic outgassing which raised the CO2 concentration
of the atmosphere abruptly to 12%, about 350 times modern levels, causing extreme greenhouse
conditions and cazbonate deposition as limestone at the rate of about lmm per day.[16] This episode
marked the close of the Precambrian eon, and was succeeded by the generally warmer conditions of the
Phanerozoic, during which multicellulaz animal and plant life evolved. No volcanic cazbon dioxide
emission of comparable scale has occurred since. In the modem era, emissions to the atmosphere from
volcanoes aze only about 1% of emissions from human sources.[16)[17]
Anthropogenic greenhouse gases
Besides other changes to the environment, _.._._. _..._..__ ~......._._._._..~____. _.. _..._._._ r._._...._._.._.__..~ _~_...__.~
since about 1750 human activity has _______~
increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases. Measured atmospheric concentrations of .... .. ......._.._...__.___...._..._..._.___...._._........_._....... __._.._..._...__..__._.._._.-----_.._ ._.
cazbon dioxide aze currently 100 ppmv higher than pre-
industrial levels.[18] Natural sources of carbon dioxide aze more than 20 times greater than sources due
to human activity,[19] but over periods longer than a few yeazs natural sources are closely balanced by
natural sinks such as weathering of continental rocks and photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants
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Greenhouse gas - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
and marine plankton. As a result of this
balance, the atmospheric concentration of
carbon dioxide had remained between 260
and 280 parts per million for the 10,000
years between the end of the last glacial
maximum and the start of the industrial era.
1201
It is likely anthropogenic warming, such as
that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels,
has had a discernible influence on many
physical and biological systems. Projected
changes in several climate factors, including
atmospheric cazbon dixxide, are projected to
impact various issues such as freshwater
resources, industry, food and health.~211
The main sources of greenhouse gases due to
human activity aze:
^ burning of fossil fuels and
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Arr~ua~ Greorrhouse Gas emissions bX Sector
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deforestation leading to higher carbon
dioxide concentrations. Land use change (mainly
deforestation in the tropics) account for up to one
third of total anthropogenic CO emissions. [20]
^ livestock enteric fermentation a~d manure
management,l~~1 paddy. rice farming, land use and
wetland changes, pipeline losses, and covered vented
landfill emissions leading to higher methane
atmospheric concentrations. Many of the newer style
fully vented septic systems that enhance and tazget
the fermentation process also aze sources of
atmospheric methane.
^ use of chlorofluorocazbons (CFCs) in refrigeration
systems, and use of CFCs and halons in fire
suppression systems and manufacturing processes.
^ agricultural activities, including the use of fertilizers,
that lead to higher nitrous oxide (N20)
concentrations.
The seven sources of C02 from fossil fuel combustion aze
(with percentage contributions for 2000-2004):~23~
1. Solid fuels (e.g. coal): 35%
2. Liquid fuels (e.g. gasoline): 36%
3. Gaseous fuels (e.g. natural gas): 20%
4. Flaring gas industrially and at wells: <1%
5. Cement production: 3%
6. Non-fuel hydrocazbons: <1
7. The "international bunkers" of shipping and air
_10
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~-
Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions broken
down into 8 different sectors for the yeaz 2000.
~~.a~
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~.
aaoec t~ausaanct
arao~a~
Eq°~Pxium gioh®I m~v- uxi~psra~s ~ atw~ pn
The projected temperature increase for a
greenhouse gas stabilization scenarios (the co
The black line in middle of the shaded azea i
estimates ;the red and the blue lines the likel•
the work of IPCC AR4, 2007.
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i
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aan +~o soo gon ran can
GMG ca+~caa+ateon s'rr~aon i~ret ~p~n t
', Per capita anthropogenic greenhouse gas e~
Greenhouse gas - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 5 of 15
transport not included in national
inventories: 4%
country for the year 2000 including land-use change.
The U.S. EPA ranks the major greenhouse gas contributing end-user sectors in the following order:
industrial, transportation, residential, commercial and agricultural.~241 Major sources of an individual's
GHG include home heating and cooling, electricity consumption, and transportation. Corresponding
conservation measures aze improving home building insulation, compact fluorescent lamps and
choosing energy-efficient vehicles.
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride,
HFCs, and PFCs) are the major greenhouse gases and the subject of the Kyoto Protocol, which came
into force in 2005.251
Although CFCs aze greenhouse gases, they aze regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated
by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that
ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often aze
confused in the media.
Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) is used in the manufacture of microelectronics. It is a strong greenhouse gas,
but presently its concentration is very low and it is not subject to greenhouse gas treaties.
Role of water vapor
Water vapor accounts for the lazgest
percentage of the greenhouse effect, between
36% and 66% for water vapor alone, and
between 66% and 85% when factoring in
clouds.~~l Water vapor concentrations
fluctuate regionally, but human activity does
not directly affect water vapor
concentrations except at local scales, such as
neaz irrigated fields.
The Clausius-Clapeyron relation establishes
that air can hold more water vapor per unit
volume when it warms. This and other basic
principles indicate that any warming
Increasing water vapor in the stratosphere at Boulder,
Colorado.
associated with the increased concentration
of the other greenhouse gases also increases the concentration of water vapor as well.
In climate matters, when a warming trend results in effects that induce further warming, the process is
referred to as a "positive feedback"; when the effects induce cooling, the process is referred to as a
"negative feedback". Because water vapor is the primary greenhouse gas and because warm air can hold
more water vapor than cooler air, the primary positive feedback involves water vapor.
This positive feedback does not result in runaway global warming because it is offset by negative
feedback, which stabilizes average global temperatures. One primary negative feedback is the effect of
temperature on emission of infrazed radiation: as the temperature of a body increases, the emitted
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Methane
1,745 ppb
1,045 ppb
150%
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0.48
o1aides ~ 314 ppb ~ 44 ppb 16% ~ 0.15
Relevant to both radiative forcing and ozone depletion; all of
the following have no natural sources and hence zero
amounts pre-industrial
Gas Current (1998) ~ Radiative forcing
Amount by volume ~ (W/m2)
CFC-11 268 ppt ! 0.07
CFC-12 533 ppt 3 0.17
CFC-113 84 ppt ~ 0.03
Carbon tetrachloride 102 ppt ~ 0.01
HCFC-22 69 ppt 0.03
(Source: IPCC radiative forcing report 1994 updated (to 1998) by IPCC TAR table 6.1 [34][35] )
Recent rates of change and emission
The sharp acceleration. in CO2 emissions
since 2000 of >3% y 1(>2 ppm y 1) from
1.1 % y 1 during the 1990s is attributable to
the lapse of formerly declining trends in
carbon intensity of both developing and
developed nations. Although over 3/4 of
cumulative anthropogenic CO2 is still
attributable to the developed world, China
was responsible for most of global growth in
emissions during this period. Localised
plummeting emissions associated with the
collapse of the Soviet Union have been
followed by slow emissions growth in this
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Greenhouse gas intensity in 2000 including land-use change
region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by
the increasing proportion of it that is exported.[23] In
comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and
N2o by o.2s°i° y 1 [36]
The direct emissions from industry have declined due to a
constant improvement in energy efficiency, but also to a
high penetration of electricity. If one includes indirect
emissions, related to the production of electricity,
emissions from industry in Europe are roughly stabilized
since -1994. [37]
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Asia
atmospheric COZ
Atmospheric levels of C02 continue to rise,
partly a sign of the industrial rise of Asian economies led by China.~38] Over the 2000-2010 interval
China is expected to increase its cazbon dioxide emissions by 600 Mt, lazgely because of the rapid
construction ofold-fashioned power plants in poorer internal provinces.l39]
See also: Asian brown cloud
United Kingdom
The UK set itself a target of reducing cazbon dioxide emissions by 20% from 19901evels by 2010, but
according to its own figures it will fall short of this tazget by almost 4%.[40]
United States
The United States emitted 16.3% more GHG in 2005 than it did in 1990.41] According to a preliminary
estimate by the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, the lazgest national producer of C02
emissions since 2006 has been China with an estimated annual production of about 6200 megatonnes.
China is followed by the United States with about 5,800 megatonnes. However the per capita emission
figures of China are still about one quarter of those of the US population.
Relative to 2005, China's fossil C02 emissions increased in 2006 by 8.7%, while in the USA,
compazable C02 emissions decreased in 2006 by 1.4%. The agency notes that its estimates do not
include some C02 sources of uncertain magnitude.~42] These figures rely on national COQ data that do
not include aviation. Although these tonnages are small compazed to the C02 in the Earth s atmosphere,
they are significantly lazger than pre-industrial levels.
See also: Climate change in the United States
Relative C02 emission from various fuels
Pounds of Cazbon dioxide emitted per million British thermal units of energy for various fuels:
Fuel name ~ C02 emitted (lbs/106 Btu) 0
Natural gas 117
Liquefied petroleum gas 139 ~~
Propane 139
Aviation gasoline 153
Automobile gasoline 156
Kerosene 159
Fuel oil 161
Tires/tire derived fuel 189
Wood and wood waste 195
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Coal (bituminous) 205
Coal (subbituminous) 213
Coal (lignite) 215
Petroleum coke 225
Coal (anthracite) 227
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Removal from the atmosphere and global warming potential
This section deals with natural processes. For projects to deliberately remove greenhouses gases from
the atmosphere, see geoengineering, carbon dioxide scrubbing and greenhouse gas remediation
Aside from water vapor, which has a_ residence time of about nine days, major greenhouse gases are
well-mixed, and take many years to leave the atmosphere.~431 Although it is not easy to know with
precision how long it takes greenhouse gases to leave the atmosphere, there are estimates for the
principal greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes:
. as a consequence of a physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from
the atmosphere).
^ as a consequence of chemical reactions within the atmosphere. This is the case for methane. It is
oxidized by reaction with naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH• and degraded to CO2 and
water vapor at the end of a chain of reactions (the contribution of the CO2 from the oxidation of
methane is not included in the methane Global warming potential). This also includes solution and
solid phase chemistry occurring in atmospheric aerosols.
. as a consequence of a physical interchange at the interface between the atmosphere and the other
compartments of the planet. An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans at the
boundary layer.
. as a consequence of a chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other
compartments of the planet. This is the case for CO2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of
plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and
carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).
^ as a consequence of a photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by iJV light releasing
Cl• and F• as free radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are
generally too stable to disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).
Atmospheric lifetime
Jacob (1999)11 defines the lifetime i of an atmospheric species X in aone-box model as the average
time that a molecule of X remains in the box. Mathematically ti can be defined as the ratio of the mass m
(in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box (Four)
m
chemical loss of X (L), and deposition of X (D) (all in kg/sec): ~' _
[~J
The atmospheric lifetime of a species therefore measures the time required to restore equilibrium
following an increase in its concentration in the atmosphere. Individual atoms or molecules may be lost
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or deposited to sinks such as the soil, the oceans and other waters, or vegetation and other biological
systems, reducing the excess to background concentrations. The average time taken to achieve this is the
mean lifetime. The atmospheric lifetime of CO2 is often incorrectly stated to be only a few yeazs
because that is the average time for any CO2 molecule to stay in the atmosphere before being removed
by mixing into the ocean, photosynthesis, or other processes. However, this ignores the balancing fluxes
of COZ into the atmosphere from the other reservoirs. It is the net concentration changes of the various
greenhouse gases by all sources and sinks that determines atmospheric lifetime, not just the removal
processes.
Global warming potential
The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse
gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO2 and evaluated for a
specific timescale. Thus, if a molecule has a high GWP on a short time scale (say 20 years) but has only
a short lifetime, it will have a lazge GWP on a 20 yeaz scale but a small one on a 100 yeaz scale.
Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO2 its GWP will increase with time.
Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP for several greenhouse gases include:
^ Carbon dioxide has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and cannot be specified precisely.[45] Recent
work indicates that recovery from a large input of atmospheric CO2 from burning fossil fuels will
result in an effective lifetime of tens of thousands of yeazs.[46][47] Carbon dioxide is defined to
have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.
^ Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 f 3 yeazs and a GWP of 72 over 20 years, 25 over 100
yeazs and 7.6 over 500 yeazs. The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane is
degraded to water and CO2 through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
. Nitrous ozide has an atmospheric lifetime of 114 yeazs and a GWP of 289 over 20 years, 298
over 100 yeazs and 153 over 500 years.
^ CFC-12 has an atmospheric lifetime of 100 years and a GWP of 11000 over 20 yeazs, 10900 over
100 yeazs and 5200 over 500 yeazs.
. HCFC-22 has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 yeazs and a GWP of 5160 over 20 yeazs, 1810 over
100 years and 549 over 500 yeazs.
^ Tetrafluoromethane has an atmospheric lifetime of 50,000 yeazs and a GWP of 5210 over 20
yeazs, 7390 over 100 yeazs and 11200 over 500 years.
^ Sulphur hezafluoride has an atmospheric lifetime of 3,200 yeazs and a GWP of 16300 over 20
years, 22800 over 100 years and 32600 over 500 yeazs.
^ Nitrogen trifluoride has an atmospheric lifetime of 740 yeazs and a GWP of 12300 over 20
yeazs, 17200 over 100 years and 20700 over 500 yeazs.
Source: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Table 2.14.
'The use of CFC-12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting
properties.[48] The phasing-out of less active HCFC-compounds will be completed in 2030.[49]
Airborne fraction
Airborne fraction (AF) is the proportion of a emission (e.g. CO2) remaining in the atmosphere after a
specified time. Canadell (2007)[50] define the annual AF as the ratio of the atmospheric CO2 increase in
a given year to that yeaz's total emissions, and calculate that of the average 9.1 PgC y 1 of total
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. Global Atmosphere Watch
^ Hydrogen economy
^ List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
. Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
^ North American Carbon Program
^ Norwegian Polar Institute
^ Ocean acidification
^ Radiative forcing
^ Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative
^ United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
. Virgin Earth Challenge
^ Western Regional Climate Action Initiative
^ World energy resources and consumption
^ Zero carbon economy
External links
^ Greenhouse gas at the Open Directory Project ~~
.The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) Environment portal
^ Greenhouse Gases Sources, Levels, Study results -University of
Michigan; eia.doe.gov findings
^ How Much Greenhouse Gas Does the United States Emit?
^ Greenhouse-gas reduction technologies for coal-fired power generation.
^ Grist article on convenient summary from vazious sources incl IPCC of GHG emissions
Convenient summary of Greenhouse gas emissions
Cazbon dioxide emissions
^ World's Most Accurate Carbon Emissions Calculator
^ International Energy Annual: Reserves
^ International Energy Annual 2003: Carbon Dioxide Emissions
^ International Energy Annual 2003: Notes and Sources for Table H.lco2 (Metric tons of cazbon
dioxide can be converted to metric tons of cazbon equivalent by multiplying by 12/44)
^ DOE - EIA -Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels 1994 -Volume 2, Greenhouse
Gas Emissions (includes "Greenhouse Gas Spectral Overlaps and Their Significance")
^ NOAA Paleoclimatology Program -Vostok Ice Core
^ NOAA CMDL CCGG -Interactive Atmospheric Data Visualization NOAA COQ data
^ Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre FAQ Includes links to Cazbon Dioxide statistics
^ Little Green Data Book 2007, World Bank. Lists C02 statistics by country, including per capita
and by country income class.
^ Flight Cazbon Emission Calculator
. Database of carbon emissions of power plants
^ NASA's Orbiting Cazbon Observatory
Methane emissions
^ BBC News -Thawing Siberian bogs aze releasing more methane
^ METHANE-EATING BUG HOLDS PROMISE FOR CUTTING GREENHOUSE GAS. Media
Release, GNS Science, New Zealand
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Policy and advocacy
Page 13 of 15
^ Australian Greenhouse Gas Initiative
^ Global Green Plan, anot-for profit organisation based in Melbourne, Australia, developing school
curriculum to teach youth how to reduce emissions
^ Carbon Dioxide is Good for the Environment 2001 paper by the National Center for Public Policy
Research
^ Environmental Effects of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide paper by the Oregon Institute of
Science and Medicine
^ EU page about reducing C02 emissions from light-duty vehicles :the EU's aim is to reach - by
2010 at the latest - an average C02 emission figure of 120 g/km for all new passenger cars
marketed in the Union.
References
1. ^ "IPCC AR4 SYR Appendix Glossary" (PDF). http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
reportJaz4/syr/ar4_syr appendix.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-14.
2. ^ Kazl TR, Trenberth KE (2003). "Modern Global Climate Change". Science 302 (5651): 1719-1723.
doi:10.1126/science.1090228. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/contendabstract/302/5651/1719.
3. ^ Le Treut H, Somerville R, Cubasch U, Ding Y, Mauritzen C, Mokssit A, Peterson T and Prather M (2007)
(PDF). Historical Overview of Climate Change Science In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M and Miller HL,
editors). Cambridge University Press. http://ipcc-wgl.ucar.edu/wgl/ReportlAR4WG1_Print_ChOl.pdf.
Retrieved on 2008-12-14.
4. ^ " 6 NASA Science Mission Directorate article on the water cycle
5. ^ http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/az4/syr/az4_syr_spm.pdf AR4 SYR SPM page 5
6• ^ a b Kiehl J. T.; Kevin E. Trenberth (February 1997). "Eazth's Annual Global Mean Ener Budget" (PDF).
Bulletin of'the American Meteorological Society 78 ( ): 197-208. doi:10.1175/1520-047797)
078<0197:EAGMEB>2.O.C0;2.
http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf. Retrieved
on 1 May 2006.
7. ^ a b c ..Water vapour: feedback or forcing?". RealClimate. 6 Apri12005.
http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142. Retrieved on 20Q6-OS-O1.
8• ^ Prather, Michael J.; J Hsu (2008-06-26). "NF3, the greenhouse gas missing from Kyoto". Geophysical
Research Letters (American Geophysical Union) 35 (L12810). doi:10.1029/2008GL034542.
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2008/2008GL034542.shtml.
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